Dec
17
Child Labour in the Industrial Revolution
By cwaller2 on December 17, 2011 Leave a Comment
Child labour had existed before the Industrial Revolution, but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders.Children as young as four were employed.Beatings and long hours were common. Also, conditions were dangerous as children were killed when they dozed off and fell into the path of the carts or died from gas explosions.Many children developed lung cancer and other diseases and died before the age of 25. Workhouses would sell orphans and abandoned children as “pauper apprentices”, working without wages for board and lodging. Some lost hands or limbs, others were crushed under the machines, and some were decapitated. Children employed at glassworks were regularly burned and blinded, and those working at potteries were vulnerable to poisonous clay dust.
Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law, but factory owners resisted because some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in England: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law, however, their scarcity made enforcement difficult. About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden.
Engels, Friedrich, The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1892
Galbi, Douglas A., Child Labor and the Division of Labor in the Early English Cotton Mills, Cambridge CB2 1st, 1994
Dec
17
Effect of Canals on the Industrialization of Great Britain
By cwaller2 on December 17, 2011 2 Comments
In the late eighteenth century, canals came into being because the Industrial Revolution demanded an economic and reliable way to transport goods and commodities in large quantities. They linked the major manufacturing centres in the Midlands and north with seaports and with London. Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be easily transported across the country. A single canal horse could pull a load dozens of times larger than a cart at a faster pace. By the 1820s, a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organization and methods later used to construct railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways in the 1840′s.
Britain’s canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.
Hadfield, Charles. The Canal Age,. New York: F.A. Praeger, 1969.
Dec
17
The Importance of Steam Power to the Industrial Revolution
By cwaller2 on December 17, 2011 Leave a Comment
The development of the stationary steam engine was an essential early element of the Industrial Revolution. The world was becoming an industrialized place before the advent of steam power, but would never have progressed so quickly without it.
Factories that still relied on wind or water power to drive their machines during the Industrial Revolution were confined to certain locales. Steam meant that factories could be built anywhere, not just along fast-flowing rivers.
Thomas Watt and Matthew Boulton. a British manufacturer, tailored Watt’s steam engine to any company that could use it, amassing great fortunes for themselves but also sharing research over vast distances.
Transportation was one of those important beneficiaries. By the early 1800s, high-pressure steam engines had become compact enough to move beyond the factory, prompting the first steam-powered locomotive to hit the rails in Britain in 1804. For the first time in history, goods were transported over land by something other than the muscle of man or animal.
The United States was the pioneer in shipping, putting a passenger steamship on the water in 1807, which provided a new way of transportation to society.
Hulse, David H, The Early Development of the Steam Engine, TEE Publishing, Leamington Spa, UK, 1999
L.T.C. Rolt and J. S. Allen, The Steam engine of Thomas Newcomen, Landmark, Ashbourne, 1997
Dec
12
The words and concepts of Conservatism and Liberalism have changed in meaning since the nineteenth century. Modern conservatives want less government intervention in their lives, which is the exact opposite of what it meant to be a conservative in the nineteenth century. Another term for conservatism in this century is monarchism, as conservatives desired social stability through monarchical rule. Conservatives believed in tradition and hierarchy to govern over a nation. There were three main essential anchors of social harmony: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Church. They did not believe that all men were created equal, and that some men were in fact born greater than others. A nation has to have a wide reach into the lives of its citizens and that each nation was dedicated to increasing the power of the nation.
Liberals took another approach to the conservative thought of government intervention in its citizens’ lives. They believed that each individuals had inherent rights and every citizen should be able to work their way up in the social class of the nation. Their goal was complete economic, personal and political freedom. Liberals were made up of primarily the middle class. While the liberals sound like the good guys in the nineteenth century, it is important to keep in mind that they did not believe in giving power to women, the poor nor the uneducated. Conservatism vs Liberalism was a battle between monarchs and the middle class to gain power.
Works Cited:
Frankforter, Daniel, and William Spellman. The West A Narrative History. New Jersey: Pearson, 2009
Riley, Jim. “Moderate Political Ideologies: Liberalism and Conservatism.” academic.regis.edu. . http://academic.regis.edu/jriley/libcons.htm (accessed December 12, 2011).
Dec
12
Congress of Vienna 1814-1815
By cshea on December 12, 2011 Leave a Comment
Napoleon’s vast reign of power came to an end in May, 1814. His grand conquest expanded the French power deep throughout Europe. Now that the Napoleon and the French had lost, the world powers had to figure out how to reconfigure Europe. The Treaty of Paris was signed at Napoleons defeat and the main powers created a rough draft of what Europe was to look like in the future. In the treaty, the powers ageed to convene again in a few months at a congress to finalize plans. This congress became known as the Congress of Vienna. It began in September 1815 and wasn’t completed until June 1815. Napoleon’s brief regaining of power was not enough to cancel the Congress and the treaty was signed a few days before Napoleon’s final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. The two main principles of thought that the leaders wanted at this conference was:
1) Monarchial legitmacy- This means restoring the old monarchies that were established before Napoloen.
2) Stability- Create a balance of power throughout Europe that the strongest nations could share.
The main powers in the congress and who represented them were as follows:
Austria- Prince Metternich. He is credited as the chief negotiator in the group.
United Kingdom- Viscount Castlereagh.
Russia- Tsar Alexander I
Prussia- Baron Hardenberg
France- Carles Maurice Prince de Talleyrand. France was not originally going to have a say in the negotiations, but the French minister for foreign affairs Talleyrand performed swift political bidding to get France into the conversation.
Many other nations attended the negotiations as well, including Denmark, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the Papel States. However, none of these nations had the same power in negotiations.
Major Results of the Congress:
Russia acquired land in Poland and Finland.
Prussia received major parts of Saxony and the German procince of Westphalia.
Britain- Gained control of many important naval bases in areas such as Malta, Cape Colony in South Africa and others in Africa and Asia.
A German Confederation of 38 states was created and was to be ruled by the Austrian Emperor.
France was allowed to keep the territory it had before Napoleon’s conquests and King Louis XVIII was restored as the Bourbon king. It was also required to pay the war debt of all of the nations.
There have been criticisms of the Congress of Vienna for ignoring the nationalism within some of the nations, it is hard to argue with its success. This is because there was not a major war in Europe for almost a century.
Works Cited:
“Congress of Vienna.” Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. . http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/628086/Congress-of-Vienna (accessed December 12, 2011).
Frankforter, Daniel, and William Spellman. The West A Narrative History. New Jersey: Pearson, 2009
Dec
12
French Absolutism
By mefrus on December 12, 2011 Leave a Comment
The Foundations of French Absolutism: When Henry IV became King of France in 1589, he inherited a royal mess. Peasants were on the verge of starvation due to poor harvests; wolves, and bands of demoralized soldiers were a constant danger, and the population shrinking. Everyone in the country yearned for stability. Henry was largely responsible for this recovery. He was the first French Ruler since Louis IX (the real “St. Louis”) to genuinely care about his people. When the French Revolution broke out in 1789, his statue was the only one the mob did not tear down.
Henry converted to Catholicism, but issued the Edict of Nantes as a means of winning Protestant support. He kept France at peace (except for one short insignificant war) and sharply lowered taxes. He compensated for the loss revenue from taxes by introducing an annual fee to be paid by royal officials to make sure that their positions would be inheritable, the paulette.
Henry managed to restore financial and political stability in the country, but he was murdered by a fanatic in 1610, which created a crisis. He was succeeded by his son, Louis XIII, who still under age. Louis’ mother, Catherine de Medici, ruled as regent, although the real power lay with a number of feudal nobles. Things changed in 1624 when Catherine arranged to have Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu appointed to the council of ministers. Richelieu soon became first minister, and used his strong influence over Louis XIII to strengthen the French monarchy. Richelieu single-handedly set in place the foundations for French absolutism.
In 1624, Richelieu managed to reshuffle the royal council and thereby eliminated his political rivals. He leveled castles (a symbol of feudal independence) and had those who opposed him executed summarily. He successfully increased the power of the French state and thereby the power of the King.
Religion was still a point of contention in France, even though the Edict of Nantes had attempted to settle religious disputes. Under the Edict, the Calvinist Huguenots were granted 150 towns where they might practice their faith. In 1627, Louis XIII decided that the Huguenots should be suppressed. He claimed that although they Huguenots demanded freedom of conscience, they did not allow Catholics to worship in their cities, which to him was political disobedience. In 1628, Louis’ forces attacked the Huguenot city of New Rochelle, and destroyed the cities walls. Protestants were allowed the right to worship publicly, but Louis reinstated the Catholic liturgy, and Cardinal Richelieu himself celebrated the first Mass. This was an important step towards the unification of France as a Catholic state.
In foreign policy, Richelieu opposed the Holy Roman Empire which surrounded France, even though it was Catholic and he was a prince of the Church. He allied with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in the Swedish phase of the Thirty Years War. At the end of the war, the province of Alsace was French. Many of his actions seemed to contradict his position as a prince of the church; however he justified his policies by stating that “Where the interests of the state are concerned, God absolves actions which, if privately committed, would be a sin.”
In 1625, Richelieu gave official recognition to a group of philologists who later formed the French Academy. In 1694, long after Richelieu’s death, the academy published a dictionary which standardized the French language, much as Luther’s efforts in Germany had standardized haupt deutsch as the language of Germany.
Richelieu hand picked his own successor, Jules, Cardinal Mazarin an Italian known for his love of money and finery. When Louis XIII died in 1643, Queen Anne of Austria governed for the new child King Louis XIV who was four years old. She depended heavily upon Mazarin, who became the dominant power of the government. Anne and Mazarin prolonged the Thirty Years War by keeping French troops in the field, the cost of which led to a crisis. To pay the costs of the conflict, Mazarin borrowed heavily from financiers against expected revenue from new taxes and the sale of new offices. However, powerful nobles known as “nobles of the sword” (who owed their title to inheritance as opposed to the “nobility of the robe” who bought their titles) resisted, and tried to regain the influence they had lost earlier. When French forces defeated the Spanish in 1643, the French people believed peace was at hand, and that additional taxes were unnecessary. Ordinary people also joined the fray, demanding that taxes be lowered because of poor economic conditions. The result was a revolt known as the “Fronde” which lasted from 1648 to 1653.
Fronde means “slingshot” or “catapult.” Street urchins who threw mud at the coaches of passing rich people were called frondeur. The term was used to describe anyone who opposed the policies of the government. Many groups, including noblemen, resented the increased power of the monarchy under Louis XIII, and Mazarin did not have Richelieu’s ability to control them.
During the Fronde, civil order broke down completely. Violence continued off and on for almost twelve years. Three significant consequences for the future resulted from the Fronde:
§ It became apparent that the government would have to compromise with the bureaucrats and social elites that controlled local institutions, who were already largely exempt from taxation. This eliminated another source of badly needed revenue.
§ The French economy was badly disrupted. It would not recover for many years.
§ Louis XIV was traumatically affected by the rebellion. He and his mother were frequently threatened, and on one occasion, when he was twelve years old, a mob broke into his bed chamber to make sure he was indeed there. The experience terrified him. Louis never forgot the humiliation, and soon determined that an absolute monarchy was the only alternative to anarchy.
The Reign of Louis XIV: In September, 1651, Louis, age thirteen, declared his majority and the right to rule. His reign (1632-1715) was to become the longest in the history of Europe. He knew very little Latin and precious little arithmetic, but was fluent in Spanish and Italian and wrote elegantly. He installed his royal court at Versailles, twelve miles from Paris, and required all the nobility of France to spend some portion of the year there, or face disastrous consequences. Versailles had been begun by Louis XIII as a hunting lodge and as a retreat from a queen whom he disliked. Under his son, it was turned into an architectural masterpiece. The gigantic Great Hall of Mirrors, where the Treaty of Versailles (ending World War One) was negotiated was illuminated by candles and contained a ceiling with allegorical paintings of Louis’ victories.
Source: http://www.historydoctor.net/Advanced%20Placement%20European%20History/Notes/absolutism_in_france.htm
Dec
12
Charles V and Henry VIII
By aboykin on December 12, 2011 Leave a Comment
MadMonarchist. “Henry VIII and Charles V .” YouTube – Broadcast Yourself. . http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=21WR9bkBq-g (accessed December 11, 2011).
A look a the “relationship” and disgreements between Charles V and Henry VIII.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=21WR9bkBq-g
Dec
12
Known for the being a primary source of the reformation, Martin Luther was a huge influence on the revolution and changing many things in Europe bringing about new ideas and controversy.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EFqWnEpZvjs
Dec
12
A simplified Version of the reformation
By aboykin on December 12, 2011 Leave a Comment
Though everyone knows the reformation was far deeper than this plain video, we see a basic understanding of what occured during this time.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gi5qR7tflG0
Dec
12
Thirty Years’ War Images
By Alexandra Augustine on December 12, 2011 Leave a Comment
Credit goes to: http://www.principiadialectica.co.uk/blog/?p=1596Ernest Crofts' A Scene from the Thirty Years' War Credit goes to: http://www.lampron.info/storyofjeanlaspron.htm
Credit goes to: http://www.fortunecity.com/victorian/riley/787/30/
